education africa

Collaborative Learning among Universities by Naikumi mary, Lecturer Curriculum and Instruction at the Faculty of Science, department of Education Mbarara University of Science and Technology

The concept of Collaborative Learning involves a process of identifying potential partners with whom to work with to create a pool of knowledge and platforms for exchange of knowledge and skills.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     The term Collaborative Learning refers to an innovative instruction method in which learners at various performance levels work together through small groups to achieve a common learning objective. (Naikumi 2011).

Proponents of Collaborative learning claim that the active exchange of ideas within small groups increases participant’s interests and critical thinking. It is a mode of Instruction that involves students working in teams in order to achieve a common goal. (Johnson,Johnson, and Smith, 1991).

The following are the benefits of Collaborative Learning approach:

Development of higher levels of thinking skills and abilities among learners; this is realized out of the interaction that takes place among the learners given the different knowledge levels. All are challenged to think better for individual and mutual benefits.

Promotion of student-faculty interactions, the learners benefit from the faculties available in the collaboration network. This facilitates the knowledge bank.

Increases student retention of knowledge and skills as a result of the mode of work that facilitates retention of knowledge acquired because the learners are key participants in the learning process.

Self esteem of the learners is built, in that the success of collaboration learning relies on the learners themselves, so they gain confidence in the process of interaction.  

Enhancement of learners’  satisfaction with the learning, experience. Collaborative learning puts the learners in a center place of the learning experiences and they contribute much in terms of determining how they learn and when they learn.

Develops social interaction skills,. this comes along with Bandura’s Social interaction theory of learning.

Promotes positive race relations, this clearly seen when it happens among different countries or across nations.

Creates an environment of active, involved, exploratory learning, Learners are able to be fully engaged in the learning process.

For more details read about the Collaboration net work among four Universities in Africa and one in German.  Web page: education-africa.com

What does Evaluating Curriculum mean?

It means rendering value judgment to a set of experiences selected for educational purposes.

It is a process that involves gathering information about the effectives of Curricular and measurement is done in terms of levels of achievement of the pre-set objectives.

Among the many reasons for undertaking Curriculum evaluation we have the following:

·        To allow the curriculum developers and implementers be certain about the functions of the curriculum put in place (feedback)

·        It also gives information on the relevancy of the curriculum in the society.

·        Information on the effectiveness of the instructional materials is obtained through evaluation.

What do we evaluate at Classroom level?

·        Content/Subject matter

·        Teachers’ performance, this can be in terms of content delivery methods or classroom control methods.

·        Pupils/Learners   performance in terms of acquisition of knowledge and skills.

·        The abilities of the learners to learn.

·        The teachers’ ability to pass on knowledge.

·        Etc

Why do we do evaluation in teaching and learning?

·        To gather information for parents and guardians about the performance of their children.

·        To create a basis for promotion from one level to another in the school system

·        To motivate learners through the feedback in form report cards.

·        To gather information for guidance and counseling.

·        To provide information about the various teaching methods used in school system.

Types of evaluation in schools

Formative evaluation

Summative evaluation

Formative evaluation:

This takes place during the teaching and learning processes.

Examples include: Tests, home work, assignments of various forms and continuous assessment aspects.

Summative evaluation:

This is evaluation that comes at the end of an education process. Examples include, end of term examinations done in schools, Primary leaving examinations, Uganda certificate of education examinations, End of semester examinations Etc.

Question: Examine the advantages and disadvantages of both the Summative and formative ways of evaluation in the school system.

INDICATORS OF A GOOD EVALUATION SYSTEM

·        Comprehensive: A good evaluation system should have a wide scope. All content taught /tasks carried out are included in the evaluation tool.

·        Usability: The system’s instruments and materials should be easy to use. All stakeholders in the system should be in position to work well with the   evaluation system tools.

·        Compatibility: The match between content and objectives should be visible and realistic. The evaluation system should target to evaluate the pre set objectives.

Implications of Evaluation process to teachers:

·        Teachers should give clear instructions for tests, class work and examinations.

·        Set and examine content that has been taught and covered in the syllabus.

·        Create a good atmosphere for learners during evaluation periods.

·        Always be extra careful when handling evaluation matters for learners.

This is a revised version of Benjamin Bloom’s work with the addition of the Psychomotor Domain as developed by Anita Harrow [1972]. Dr. Bloom’s intent was to develop a classification framework for writing educational objectives. The questions and examples were added by Tom Allen to make the Taxonomy more useful for beginning teachers as a tool to facilitate appropriate questioning.

COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

This classification typically puts emphasis on the ability of the brain or mental capacity of learners to recall what they are taught. The brain is assimilated to a computer with power reproduce that which is fed into it. Unfortunately this kind of approach to teaching and learning puts learners at a risk of failure to add on knowledge and become very creative. It is based when complimented with the other classifications in the taxonomy. Below are the levels of mental capacities of learners in the Cognitive domain:

1.Knowledge: recognize or recall information.

Q: What is the capital of Maine? Who wrote “Hamlet?”

Words typically used: define, recall, recognize, remember, who, what, where, when.

2.Comprehension: demonstrate that the student has sufficient understanding to organize and arrange material mentally.

Q: What do you think Hamlet meant when he said, “to be or not to be, that is the question?” (Rosenshine, among others, would argue that one of the best ways to teach is to teach pupils how to ask their own questions about the topic under consideration.)

Words typically used: describe, compare, contrast, rephrase, put in your own words, and explain the main idea.

3.Application: a question that asks a student to apply previously learned information to reach an answer. Solving math word problems is an example.

Q: According to our definition of socialism, which of the following nations would be considered to be socialist?

Words typically used: apply, classify, use, choose, employ, write and example, solve, how many, which, what is.

4.     Analysis: higher order questions that require students to think critically and in depth. [Unless students can be brought to the higher levels of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, it is unlikely that transfer will take place, i.e., this is stuff I can use rather than this is just more dumb school stuff that I can forget after I take the test. If teachers don't ask higher level questions, it is unlikely that most students will transfer school work to real life. They may not even be able to apply it to school situations other than the one in which it was "learned." E.g., we "know" that students know more than scores on the CAP Test or SAT would suggest.]

 In analysis questions, students are asked to engage in three kinds of cognitive processes:

1.     Identify the motives, reasons, and/or causes for a specific occurrence (Q: Why was Israel selected as the site for the Jewish nation?),

2.     Consider and analyze available information to reach a conclusion, inference, or generalization based on this information (Q: After studying the French, American, and Russian revolutions, what can you conclude about the causes of a revolution?), or

3.     Words typically used: identify motives/causes, draw conclusions, determine evidence, support, analyze, why.

5.Synthesis: higher order question that asks the student to perform original and creative thinking. Synthesis questions ask students to:

1. Produce original communications. (Q: What’s a good name for this invention? Write a letter to the editor on a social issue of concern to you. Make a collage of pictures and words that represents your beliefs and feelings about the issue.)
2. Make predictions. (Q: How would the U.S.A. be different if the South had won the Civil War? What would happen if school attendance was made optional? What is the next likely development in popular music?)
3. Solve problems–although analysis questions may also ask students to solve problems, synthesis questions differ because they don’t require a single correct answer but, instead allow a variety of creative answers. (How could we determine the number of pennies in a jar without counting them? How can we raise money for our ecology project?

Words typically used in synthesis questions: predict, produce, write, design, develop, synthesize, construct, how can we improve, what would happen if, ca you devise, how can we solve etc

6.Evaluation: a higher level question that does not have a single correct answer. It requires the student to judge the merit of an idea, a solution to a problem, or an aesthetic work. The student may also be asked to offer an opinion on an issue. (Q: Do you think schools are too easy? Is busing an appropriate remedy for desegregating schools? Do you think it is true that “Americans never had it so good?” Which U.S. senator is the most effective? To answer evaluation questions objective criteria or personal values must be applied. Some standard must be used. Differing standards are quite acceptable and they naturally result in different answers. This type of question frequently is used to surface values or to cause students to realize that not everyone sees things the same way. It can be used to start a class discussion. It can also precede a follow-up analysis or synthesis question like, “Why?”

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

The Affective Domain addresses interests, attitudes, opinions, appreciations, values, and emotional sets.
The original purpose of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives was to provide a tool for classifying instructional objectives. The Taxonomy is hierarchical (levels increase in difficulty/sophistication) and cumulative (each level builds on and subsumes the ones below). The levels, in addition to clarifying instructional objectives, may be used to provide a basis for questioning that ensures that students progress to the highest level of understanding. If the teaching purpose is to change attitudes/behavior rather than to transmit/process information, then the instruction should be structured to progress through the levels of the Affective Domain:

1. Receiving. The student passively attends to particular phenomena or stimuli [classroom activities, textbook, music, etc. The teacher's concern is that the student's attention is focused. Intended outcomes include the pupil's awareness that a thing exists. Sample objectives: listens attentively, shows sensitivity to social problems. Behavioral terms: asks, chooses, identifies, locates, points to, sits erect, etc.
2. Responding. The student actively participates. The pupil not only attends to the stimulus but reacts in some way. Objectives: completes homework, obeys rules, participates in class discussion, shows interest in subject, enjoys helping others, etc. Terms: answers, assists, complies, discusses, helps, performs, practices, presents, reads, reports, writes, etc.
3. Valuing. The worth a student attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. Ranges from acceptance to commitment (e.g., assumes responsibility for the functioning of a group). Attitudes and appreciation. Objectives: demonstrates belief in democratic processes, appreciates the role of science in daily life, shows concern for others' welfare, demonstrates a problem-solving approach, etc. Terms: differentiates, explains, initiates, justifies, proposes, shares, etc.
4. Organization. Bringing together different values, resolving conflicts among them, and starting to build an internally consistent value system--comparing, relating and synthesizing values and developing a philosophy of life. Objectives: recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsibility in a democracy, understands the role of systematic planning in solving problems, accepts responsibility for own behavior, etc. Terms: Arranges, combines, compares, generalizes, integrates, modifies, organizes, synthesizes, etc.
5. Characterization by a Value or Value Complex. At this level, the person has held a value system that has controlled his behavior for a sufficiently long time that a characteristic "life style" has been developed. Behavior is pervasive, consistent and predictable. Objectives are concerned with personal, social, and emotional adjustment: displays self reliance in working independently, cooperates in group activities, maintains good health habits, etc.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Instructional objectives and derived questions/tasks typically have cognitive/affective elements, but the focus is on motor skill development. The suggested areas for use are speech development, reading readiness, handwriting, and physical education. Other areas include manipulative skills required in business training [e.g., keyboarding], industrial technology, and performance areas in science, art and music. American education has tended to emphasize cognitive development at the expense of affective and psychomotor development. The well-rounded and fully functioning person needs development in all three domains. In the psychomotor domain, performance may take the place of questioning strategies in many cases.

1. Reflex movements. Segmental, inter-segmental, and super-segmental reflexes.
2. Basic-fundamental movements. Loco motor movements, non loco motor movements, and manipulative movements.
3. Perceptual abilities. Kinesthetic, visual, auditory and tactile discrimination and coordinated abilities.
4. Physical abilities. Endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility.
5. Skilled movements. Simple, compound, and complex adaptive skills.
6. Non discursive communication. Expressive and interpretive movement.

Sample general objectives: writes smoothly and legibly; accurately reproduces a picture, map, etc.; operates a [machine] skillfully; plays the piano skillfully; demonstrates correct swimming form; drives an automobile skillfully; creates a new way of performing [creative dance]; etc.

Behavioral terms: assembles, builds, composes, fastens, grips, hammers, makes, manipulates, paints, sharpens, sketches, uses, extra

RECONSTRUCTIONISM:

Reconstructionism as a philosophy in education stands for change.

It draws its strength in the fact that society is not static.

In most societies it is common knowledge that schools and the education sector are pioneers to change and development.

The question therefore is:

      What is the purpose of schools to the reconstructionist theory?

EDUCATION SERVES THE FOLLOWING POURPOSES:

Education is to bring out positive change in society.

Examples of the positive change include:

Reduction in poverty levels

     Advancement in Technology

    Improved levels of living of which examples include:

    Better methods of farming, improved attitudes to access medical care, Practice of     better ways of environmental management 

What does this mean to a Curriculum developer?

1. The Curriculum made should consider the current and future needs of a society.

2. The other important implication to the Curriculum expert is to design course structure that gives learners freedom to try out own ideas and also improve on the existing knowledge.

3 Design a course structure that enables learners to discover knowledge on their own, such that teachers will not “spoon feed” the learners.

 4. The teaching of innovations in terms of thinking and practical skills becomes crucial at every stage in the education process.  Creativity must be credited in order to encourage innovations and inventions.

What is the role of the teacher in this philosophy?

1. Facilitate learning activities

2. Stimulate learning

      Facilitating learning means that the teacher avails opportunities to learners to experience and work with subject matter in question.

How do we stimulate and facilitate learning?

By asking questions

Probing learners

Compelling people to think

Motivating learners to suggest what they think about topical issues

Extra

PROGRESSIVISM/PRAGMATISM

 It is associated with the following philosophers:

John Dewey, Rousseau, Pestalozzi  and Froebel.

It zeros down on the learners.

Rousseau an English philosopher is viewed as the “discoverer of the child”

What does this mean to us?

Rousseau thought that education of a child should be based upon the nature, needs, abilities, interests and perspective of life.

The pragmatists view of the Curriculum is that it should be based on the attributes of learners.

Emphasis is put on the current and future experiences of learners.

Learners other than the subject determine the quantity and quality of the teaching and learning experiences.

The learner’s ability should determine the pace to complete the syllabus.

They further suggest that activities and content should arise from the active interest of the learners.

To “discover the child”. What does this mean?

 It means that Schools and teachers should help learners to find out their abilities or potential in the fields of study that are available.

  The School system and the Teachers should motivate learners to have interest in the tasks at hand /school activities.

 Teachers should encourage learners to undertake research at various levels for academic progress.

Teachers should use language and examples that promote a friendly environment for academic empowerment within the Classroom and after school.

 Teachers should give opportunities for development of new ideas with the scope of knowledge.

 The School system should monitor and evaluate progress of knowledge acquisition quite often.

 The School system should encourage all learners to participate in the activities within the class and those that go on outside formal classes.

The school system should develop interest in efforts of learners for academic boost.

The School system should avail opportunities for sharing knowledge and self expression to learners.

PERENNIALISM

This philosophy favors the subject than the learner.

It assumes a fixed Curriculum for every body.

The assumption that all learners are the same is paramount.

To the perenialists knowledge is a discipline of  the mind.

The role of the teacher is therefore to empower learners with intellectual abilities.

This requires the teacher to be well trained in the management of content, classroom management and discipline of Students.

The Philosophy puts much emphasis on the ability to work with the brain. For example if a learner can recall what was taught in class, reproduce the principles by stating them and perform mental related skills. That then is a good student.

The school of thought is exam oriented and fails to dig deep into other competencies that are long term. For example if a learner has acquired basic facts he or she may not need to conceptualize the subject content to pass the exam set in mathematics. Wholesome education entails: Facts, basic ideas, Concepts and Principals that govern the subject.

PERENNIALISM (Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler)

Despite differing environments, human nature remains the same everywhere; hence, education should be the same for everyone. This statement suggests a uniform Curriculum for all, thus a major representation of the Core Curriculum design.

Since rationality is man’s highest attribute, he must use it to direct his instinctual nature in accordance with deliberately chosen ends.

 It is education’s task to import knowledge of eternal truth.

 Education is not an imitation of life but a preparation for it.  Does the education system in your Country prepare learners for life?

 The student should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaint him with the world’s permanencies. This is food for thought for teachers, How do you teach and prepare your Students?

Students should study the great works of literature, philosophy, history, and science in which men through the ages have revealed their greatest aspirations and achievements. How do you relete this wtih the Curriculum in your Country?

ESSENTIALISM (William Bagley, Herman Horne)

Learning, of its very nature, involves hard work and often unwilling application.

 The initiative in education should lie with the teacher rather than with the pupil. Analyse the limitations of the statement.

The heart of the educational process is the assimilation of prescribed subject matter.

The school should retain traditional methods of mental discipline.

RECONSTRUCTIONISM (George Counts, Theodore Brameld)

 Education must commit itself here and now to the creation of a new social order that will fulfill the basic values of our culture and at the same time harmonize with the underlying social and economic forces of the modern world.

The new society must be a genuine democracy, whose major institutions and resources are controlled by the people themselves.

The child, the school, and education itself are conditioned inexorably by social and cultural forces.

 The teacher must convince his pupils of the validity and urgency of the reconstructionist solution, but he must do so with scrupulous regard for democratic procedures.

 The means and ends of education must be completely re-fashioned to meet the demands of the present cultural crisis and to accord with the findings of the behavioral sciences.

Look out for more in coming article

Mary Naikumi @MUST